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This is the second in a set of two Readings on Modern Portfolio Theory. It presumes readers have already read "Risk and Return 1: Stock Returns and Diversification" (#5220). This Reading starts by examining the effect of diversification on portfolio volatility, graphically and mathematically, for different levels of correlation among portfolio assets. Next, it compares portfolios and defines the concepts of efficiency and the efficient frontier. It introduces a riskless asset and uses it to identify the tangency portfolio and to define the Sharpe Ratio as a way to compare excess returns to risk. The discussion demonstrates how borrowing and lending can create any portfolio along the line between the risk-free rate and a portfolio in mu-sigma space, and it presents the two-fund separation theorem. Finally, the Reading considers the problem of whether to add a small amount of a risky asset to an existing portfolio as a way to derive the Portfolio Improvement Rule, before concluding with general equilibrium and the Capital Asset Pricing Model (CAPM). Topics covered in the Supplemental Reading section include estimation of betas, the equity market risk premium, and real-world application of CAPM, and criticisms of CAPM, both theoretical and practical. The Reading contains six web-based interactive illustrations. The first shows the decline in the volatility of a portfolio's returns as the number of stocks in the portfolio increases from two to 30. The second is the same as the first but allows the reader to specify the correlation among the 30 stocks. The third shows the region in mu-sigma space that includes all possible portfolios for five risky assets, the "broken eggshell" shape. The fourth shows possible portfolios composed of two assets when one of the assets is risk-free. The fifth illustrates how the tangency portfolio and Sharpe ratio are determined. The sixth illustrates the Portfolio Improvement Rule.

Keith Sherin, CEO of GE Capital, faced a decision on which hinged billions of dollars and the fate of one of America's most storied companies. On his desk sat two secret analyses: Project Beacon, a proposal to spin off most of GE Capital to GE shareholders, and Project Hubble, a proposal to sell off GE Capital in parts. A third document sketched out the implications should GE "stay the course" on its present strategy: a continued, massive build-up of regulatory and compliance personnel to meet GE Capital's obligations as a "SIFI"-systemically important financial institution-in the wake of the 2010 Dodd-Frank Act. No path forward was clear. A divestiture, either through a spin-off or sell-off, would reduce GE's size and financial connectedness and address market unease about GE's position as the seventh-largest U.S. financial institution. It would also unlock substantial value not currently reflected in the stock. Each faced major obstacles and execution risks, however. In particular, no one knew the precise cut-off for a SIFI designation or the time required to shed the designation. If the process took too long, or generated unexpected costs, a divestiture might destroy more value than it would create. Retaining GE Capital was risky, too, of course. Which set of risks was the right one to propose that the GE board accept?

In 2015, Ukraine needs IMF funding to bridge a projected $40 billion funding shortfall and is proposing a 40% "haircut" to Ukraine's $18 billion of Eurobonds. Can Ukraine negotiate a deal with its many creditors that will give it the funding the country needs on terms they can accept?

Raj Makam had spent months trying to restructure a 2006 investment he had made in National Truck Stops, Inc. (NTS) as a senior member of Oaktree Capital Management's (Oaktree) Mezzanine finance business within their Corporate Debt platform. It was the first time they had truly considered forcing a company into involuntary bankruptcy, which he clearly would prefer to avoid lest they risk losing their entire investment. As the company's financial position worsened, Oaktree's counterparties became increasingly difficult. It often seemed as if they were prioritizing their ongoing business relationships over the economics of their respective investments. Oaktree knew the cards were stacked in its favor legally, but did that really make a difference when the cost of perfecting its interests would be so expensive and difficult? Would this be a Pyrrhic victory?

This case examines the cost of capital estimation for British postal service company Royal Mail plc in 2015-a time when company managers and government regulators were adjusting to private ownership after 500 years of government ownership. The case features a flawed cost of capital estimation analysis that includes common blunders. Students are invited to evaluate this analysis and provide their own alternative estimate for the cost of capital for Royal Mail.

Student spreadsheet for case UV7254.

In late October 2012 the board of directors of Spanish industrial conglomerate Inveravante (IV) were set to have a meeting to examine the situation regarding an investment IV had made in Venezuelan oil company Vetra, and to consider possible ways to divest said company. As managing director of Avantegenera, one of the business units of IV, Luis García was appointed to present realistic options for divesting Vetra to the board of directors of IV, offering a valuation of Vetra and recommendations for the future. He knew that the members of the board believed that it was time for a change and to finally make some profit from the investment in Vetra. Since the proposal to invest in Vetra had been made to the board by Mr. García some years earlier, he was very keen to bring the venture to a successful completion.

Eric Kirzner interviews two of North America's leading value investors-Charles Brandes and Kim Shannon-about the current value investing environment, market efficiency, and how some things-like human behavior-never change.

Vikram Akula, CEO of SKS Microfinance, seeks a venture capital investment to fund his firm. SKS, one of the largest and fastest growing microfinance institutions in India, is a profitable, for-profit institution with a social mission. In what is one of the first commercial financing deals in the world, Akula must decide at what value to sell equity in SKS, and to whom to sell it. The case focuses on valuation, which is difficult because at the time there are no publicly traded comparable companies, and the strategic aspects of raising money.

SKS, India's leading microfinance firm, is challenged when politicians declaim microfinance as exploitation of the poor and severely restrict business practices.

An estimate of the fair rate of return on capital is a critical input into tariff regulation. A too high estimate will lead to high tariffs for consumers; a too low estimate will not provide adequate incentives for investment. The Airport Economic Regulatory Authority of India has issued a consultation paper for finalizing the norms and procedure for estimating the fair rate of return. It now needs to reconcile the differing view and approaches of different stakeholders.

Neptune Orient Lines Limited (NOL) was started as Singapore's national shipping line to facilitate industrial development and support the economy. The CMA CGM Group (CMA CGM) had acquired 67 per cent of NOL from Temasek Holdings Private Limited for SG$2.3 billion or $1.30 per share-a 6 per cent premium over the last closing price. In 2016, CMA CGM sought to acquire the remaining shares at the same price so that it could delist NOL and take it private. In order to delist, the company would need to acquire another 23 per cent of shares to hit the acceptance threshold of 90 per cent. Should the remaining shareholders sell their shares at $1.30 per share, or hold out for a better price? Should bondholders of CMA CGA and NOL be concerned about the acquisition?

In March 2012, the president of Shenzhen JIT Technology Co., Ltd., a small electronics manufacturing company in Shenzhen, China, was facing a problem with the company's uncollected accounts receivables (AR). The company had a high level of AR, and the time it was taking to settle these accounts was much longer than the industry average, which had led to financial difficulties. The company had formalized its sales commission structure to include a system of rewards and penalties related to the collection of outstanding AR payments, but these new rules had not solved the AR problem. The president needed answers: What was the main reason for the company's high AR and receivable turnover? What was wrong with its AR policy? What specific approach for quantity management of AR would resolve these issues?

Neptune Orient Lines Limited (NOL) was started as Singapore’s national shipping line to facilitate industrial development and support the economy. The CMA CGM Group (CMA CGM) had acquired 67 per cent of NOL from Temasek Holdings Private Limited for SG$2.3 billion or $1.30 per share—a 6 per cent premium over the last closing price. In 2016, CMA CGM sought to acquire the remaining shares at the same price so that it could delist NOL and take it private. In order to delist, the company would need to acquire another 23 per cent of shares to hit the acceptance threshold of 90 per cent. Should the remaining shareholders sell their shares at $1.30 per share, or hold out for a better price? Should bondholders of CMA CGA and NOL be concerned about the acquisition?

In April 2012, Mubadala, Abu Dhabi's sovereign wealth fund invested $2 billion in Brazlian conglomerate, EBX, believing the company to be undervaluing by the public markets. Shortly thereafter, however, EBX and its multiple business lines began to spiral downward. Hani Barhoush and Oscar Fahlgren, members of Mubadala's investment team, were now charged with leading the restructuring efforts on behalf of Mubadala. The situation was exceptionally complex and involved dealing with different creditors, untangling cross-collateral clauses from EBX's subsidiaries' loans, and foreclosing on personal guarantees from Batista. There were also strong political challenges, since most companies operated in tightly regulated markets, some were publicly-traded, and many had received substantial subsidized financing from Brazil's Development Bank (BNDES). Finally, the country's economic and political environments were rapidly deteriorating, with a combination of stagflation, rising interest rates, and successive popular demonstrations causing the gradual loss of governability and ultimate impeachment of President Dilma Vana Rousseff.

Food Empire Holdings Limited (Food Empire) was a food and beverage brand owner and manufacturer of instant beverage products, frozen convenience food, confectionery, and snacks. Its main markets were Russia and Ukraine. When the political tensions between Russia and Ukraine erupted and their currencies depreciated in 2014, Food Empire's bottom line was badly affected: its share price dropped 71 per cent in 30 months. In light of these developments, investors were not sure if they should sell their investments in Food Empire. Using financial statement analysis and various valuation concepts-including net tangible assets, dividend discount models, and peer multiples-it was hoped that the best course of action could be determined.

This Note outlines the financials and budgetary considerations associated with the process of developing a real estate deal as well as the importance of understanding how municipal regulations shape the process. This Note will also discuss the various components of a feasibility analysis and a development budget.

The CEO of Central Express Trucking (CXT), was preoccupied as he drove to work one morning in late October 2013. Diesel fuel prices had been a constant concern at the trucking company he had started 22 years ago. Over the last decade, the steady rise in fuel prices had squeezed margins and dampened profits. Yet despite the existence of fuel surcharges in all of CXT's contracts, short-term fuel price fluctuations still drove fluctuations in profitability. On his mind that morning was a proposal from the newest member of his sales team to offer a contract to a customer (shipper) that did not include a fuel surcharge.