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Leaders driving transformation often focus too much on how employees' tasks will change but this is less of a hurdle for workers than dealing with the threat to the informal roles they've established. Major transitions cause personal disruption along three different dimensions: role adjustment, task learning, and emotional engagement. To better manage transformative change, leaders need to focus not only on how their own roles need to adapt, but also help employees adapt to new identities.

Modest questions about how today's problems could be solved more effectively lead to applications of technology with easily foreseeable gains. But when people start asking bigger, bolder questions that challenge basic assumptions about how a problem has been framed, they open up space for breakthrough innovations. That's been the pattern in many digital realms, including cybersecurity, artificial intelligence, and the internet of things.

Although CEOs are charged with recognizing when their firms need a major change in direction, their power and privilege often insulate them from information that would help them perceive looming opportunities or threats. No one in the company wants to tell the CEO of problems, much less that he or she is mistaken. In interviews with 200 executives, Gregersen came across hardly any who didn't recognize this challenge. But he also saw that a few innovative leaders, like Walt Bettinger of Charles Schwab and Marc Benioff of Salesforce, have found a way to overcome it. Such executives take pains to get honest feedback from a broad range of constituents. They also venture off the beaten path, regularly putting themselves into situations where they are unusually uncomfortable, unexpectedly wrong, and uncharacteristically quiet. This helps them ask the right questions, discover new insights, and detect early weak signals of impending market shifts.