Puts the student in the shoes of the recently appointed treasurer of Polaroid Corporation, who must consider several matters concerning the firm's debt policy. An immediate concern is the company's outstanding $150 million 7.25% notes, due to mature in several months. Although investment bankers interested in doing business with Polaroid have been trying to present proposals for refunding the issue, the new treasurer believes that any refunding decision should be part of a larger review of the firm's financial policies. Accordingly, he has undertaken a review of the firm's overall debt policy, focusing primarily on the mix of debt and equity and on the maturity structure of the debt. Asks students to consider how much flexibility Polaroid's business will require in future years and to pick a target debt ratio that provides the necessary flexibility. Students must evaluate, in addition to internal demands for funds, the role of bond ratings and investment-grade status in maintaining ongoing access to capital markets.
This case addresses the new opportunities and challenges in design and marketing to customers who are elderly or have disabilities. A product manager learns that Leviton's wall switches are favored over less expensive competitive products by homeowners with limited vision or dexterity. With the help of a federal center on disability research, she convinces her managers to develop a marketing program to promote these features to this large and growing market segment. Leviton's in-house marketing department prepares a promotional campaign modeled on a previous successful niche marketing program. The research center staff warns that treating elders and people with disabilities as a niche market will cause the program to fail. They recommend emphasis on the "universal design" appeal of Leviton's products to children as well as elders, able-bodied as well as disabled. The product manager must choose a direction for the program based on either the research center's experience with this new market or her own company's marketing expertise.
The study of business interests adds an important dimension to our understanding of the development of international environmental agreements. The contrasting role of business interests in the cases of ozone depletion and climate change is critical to explaining why climate change is a much more difficult issue for the international community to tackle. In the case of ozone depletion, industry concentration and the technological factors provided incentives for industry leaders to invest in alternative products and processes. By contrast, fossil fuel substitutes present a long-term strategic threat to the major sectors that produce and use these fuels. Where relatively few actors were involved in ozone depletion, it will be much more difficult to craft an agreement that is acceptable to the broad range of industries affected by climate change. However, business does have substantial influence over the timing and shape of international environmental agreements, even when there is considerable disunity within the business ranks.
Samsung leapfrogged from a mere discrete device producer to the largest and most vibrant memory chip producer in the world. It managed effectively the two antecedents of technological learning: prior knowledge base and the intensity of efforts. Samsung used technology licensing and the recruitment of high caliber scientists and engineers in building its prior knowledge base and crisis construction as a strategic means for increasing the intensity of its efforts. Samsung also used internal competition to accelerate technological learning.
This technical note outlines the link between shareholder-return requirements and a firm's use of debt. It explores the theoretical arguments concerning how the cost of equity changes with the use of debt and discusses the limitations of each view. It also provides conceptual and practical guidance on the use of "levered" and "unlevered" betas.
For R.R. Donnelley & Sons, the period between 1995 and 1997 was marked by corporate restructuring, executive turnover, and an increasingly competitive environment. The emergence of the Internet and other digital technologies created threats, challenges, and possible opportunities for Donnelley's printing businesses. During 1995, Donnelley moved to improve its position by making technology-related acquisitions and forming the Digital Division. By early 1997, these acquired companies had been or were in the process of being spun-off or resold and the Digital Division had been shut down.
This is an MIT Sloan Management Review article. How can a company successfully attack an established market leader? How can it find new ways to compete that everyone else has missed? By breaking the rules of the game in its industry to find new sources of innovation, according to the author. In a study of 30 successful attackers, the author identifies five ways that they think about and develop new game plans: First, redefine the business. A company should ask itself what business it believes it is in, which, in turn, determines its customers, its competitors, and its competitive advantage. Second, redefine the who. Ask: Who is my customer? Companies can locate a customer segment that is not currently served by competitors and design products or services to fill that gap. To be successful, a company must choose a niche that eventually grows to become the mass market, and the company's way of playing the game becomes the new game in town. Third, redefine the what. A company should first decide strategically what products or services it should be selling to its customers. Then it can determine whom to target. To become a strategic innovator, a company has to be the first to identify new or changing customer needs and priorities and find better ways to satisfy them. Fourth, redefine the how. A company can build on its existing core competencies to create a totally new product or way of doing business. It can share competencies across business units, reuse a competence from one unit to create a new business, and expand competencies as it learns new skills. Finally, start the thinking process at different points. In thinking of new ideas and ways to do things, managers need to broaden their perspectives and change their angles of focus. Companies can use any one or a combination of the five approaches to kick-start strategic innovation.
This is an MIT Sloan Management Review article. Traditional accounting-based performance measurement systems are unsuited to current organizations in which the relationships with employees, customers, suppliers, and other stakeholders have changed, say the authors. A stakeholder approach to performance measurement captures strategic planning issues, while the choices a company makes in strategic planning direct the design of the performance measurement system. The authors define two groups of stakeholders: environmental (customers, owners, and the community) and process (employees and suppliers). The company exists to serve the objectives of the stakeholders, which become its primary objectives. What the company expects from and gives to each stakeholder group to achieve its primary objectives are its secondary objectives. The company must plan for and negotiate explicit and implicit contracts with stakeholders and evaluate whether the plan meets the expectations of all stakeholders. Employees design, implement, and manage processes to achieve the secondary objectives, expecting the primary objectives to result. Therefore, according to the authors, the company's performance measurement system must evaluate all processes based on their contribution to achieving secondary objectives. In their view, the system, which is the heart of a company's control system, must: help evaluate whether the company is getting expected contributions from employees and suppliers and returns from customers; help evaluate whether the company is giving each stakeholder group what it needs to continue to contribute; guide the design and implementation of processes that contribute to the secondary objectives; and help evaluate the company's planning and implicit and explicit contracts with its stakeholders. The authors examine the performance measurement system at the Bank of Montreal.
This is an MIT Sloan Management Review article. Creating a business-driven IT infrastructure requires that executives thoroughly understand their firm's strategic context. By formulating a series of business and IT maxims--short simple statements of the business' positions--they can identify the IT infrastructure service suited to their company. The authors' framework has four components: First, consider strategic context. What business demands, roles, and relationships are critical to infrastructure decisions? Second, articulate business maxims. The maxims should focus employees' attention on the firm's competitive stance, the extent of coordination across units, and the implications for information and IT management. Third, identify IT maxims. From the business maxims, executives identify IT maxims. The maxims specify the role of IT and levels of investment relative to competitors, whether processing is tailored or standardized, and how different types of data are accessed, used, and standardized. Finally, clarify a firm's view of IT infrastructure. A company should determine how it sees infrastructure from among four views: none, utility, dependent, and enabling. It can forgo synergies among units and not invest in infrastructure services, use the infrastructure primarily to reduce costs, make investments primarily to respond to current strategies, or overinvest in IT infrastructure to provide flexibility in responding to long-term goals.
This is an MIT Sloan Management Review article. Tremendous variability in orders along the supply chain can plague companies trying to eliminate excess inventory, forecast product demand, and simply make their supply chain more efficient. What causes the bullwhip effect that distorts information as it is transmitted up the chain? The authors identify four major causes: Demand forecast updating, order batching, price fluctuation, and rationing and shortage gaming. The authors suggest several ways in which companies can counteract the bullwhip effect. First, avoid multiple demand forecast updates. Companies can make demand data from downstream available upstream. Or they can bypass the downstream site by selling directly to the consumer. Also, they can improve operational efficiency to reduce highly variable demand and long resupply lead times. Second, break order batches. Companies can use electronic data interchange to reduce the cost of placing orders and place orders more frequently. And they can ship assortments of products in a truckload to counter high transportation costs or use third-party logistics companies to handle shipping. Third, stabilize prices. Manufacturers can reduce the frequency and level of wholesale price discounting to prevent customers from stockpiling. They can also use activity-based costing systems to recognize when companies are buying in bulk. Finally, eliminate gaming in shortage situations. In shortages, suppliers can allocate product based on past sales records rather than on orders, so customers don't exaggerate their orders. They can also eliminate their generous return policies, making it less likely for retailers to cancel orders.
This note explores how managers determine the proper amount of debt financing to use to fund a firm's operations. It examines the fundamental differences between debt financing and equity financing and the factors that drive the choice between them. The note is suitable for an introductory MBA course on corporate finance.
This case provides an introductory exercise for estimating the cost of capital (cost of equity, weighted average cost of capital) for a firm contemplating a large increase in debt. Students are asked to compare the debt policy of MCI Communications with that of five other leading telecommunications companies to find MCI's optimal capital structure.